For Atlantic salmon, the changeover from living and respiration in fresh water to living and breathing saltwater is nearly as complete a transition as caterpillars becoming butterflies, then, a year or years later, transforming back into caterpillars!, then back to butterflies.
Diadromous species evolved to exploit a niche: brackish estuaries, a moving transition zone, where freshwaters rivers and streams moving down stream meet saltwater currents moving upriver .Different mixtures of and temperature.
are home to neither the saltwater species of the world, nor the freshwater ones. In fact, due to the fluctuation in these water interfaces of their tides, mixing zones of currents & winds.
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Called a "smolt" (Old Eng "like a smelt, (a small fish) but different" it is a vulnerable time when fundamental biochemical processes change in these fishes, from their skins and scales and color to the composition of their blood and activities of their internal organs.
Recent studies shows that smoltification is intrinsically tied in to
Below are scientific papers on pollution impacts to Atlantic Salmon smoltification success, including Acidification, Semiochemicals (parasite attractants), Endocrine Hormones and Hypoxia
Diadromous species evolved to exploit a niche: brackish estuaries, a moving transition zone, where freshwaters rivers and streams moving down stream meet saltwater currents moving upriver .Different mixtures of and temperature.
are home to neither the saltwater species of the world, nor the freshwater ones. In fact, due to the fluctuation in these water interfaces of their tides, mixing zones of currents & winds.
.
Called a "smolt" (Old Eng "like a smelt, (a small fish) but different" it is a vulnerable time when fundamental biochemical processes change in these fishes, from their skins and scales and color to the composition of their blood and activities of their internal organs.
Recent studies shows that smoltification is intrinsically tied in to
Below are scientific papers on pollution impacts to Atlantic Salmon smoltification success, including Acidification, Semiochemicals (parasite attractants), Endocrine Hormones and Hypoxia
Summary Smoltification begins in freshwater, gets underway in brackish water and completes in saltwater. There is high mortality of Atlantic Salmon, both wild and hatchery born fish, during this time from stressful changes to their respiration & blood chemistry, to body shape & size, to behavior changes to loners to schooling fishes. Pollutants are one of the stresses
1. ACIDIFICATION AND IONIZED ALUMINUM 's IMPACT ON SMOLTS
Evidence for episodic acidification effects on migrating Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolts, First published: 24 September 2015
Excerpt 1: Field studies were conducted to determine levels of gill aluminium as an index of acidification effects on migrating Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolts in the north‐eastern U.S.A. "Smolts emigrating from the upper Merrimack River basin where most tributaries are characterized by low pH and high inorganic aluminium had consistently elevated gill aluminium and lower gill NKA activity, which may explain the low adult return rates of S. salar stocked into the upper Merrimack catchment.
Reducing Acidification in Endangered Atlantic Salmon Habitat Baseline Data Summary April 2018 Contact: Emily Zimmermann,
Exchangeable Aluminum (Alx) "The range of Alx observed in this study is similar to data from other cool ecosystems underlain by a range of geological t For protection of aquatic life, including macroinvertebrates, the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIFAC) recommends that exchangeable aluminum should not exceed 0.015 mg/L at pH 5.0-6.0, even for short durations ("
Effects of Acid Water and Aluminum on Parr–Smolt Transformation and Seawater Tolerance in Atlantic Salmon, Salmo salar 2011
Excerpt "...sensitivity to low pH or low pH/Al exposure greatly increased when fish had developed to seawater tolerant smolts. In control and acid-exposed fish, gill carbonic anhydrase activity remained unchanged throughout the experiment whereas in Al-exposed fish, carbonic anhydrase activity decreases..."
"Excerpt 2 "In the Sheepscot, Narraguagus and Penobscot Rivers in Maine, river and year‐specific effects on gill aluminium were detected that appeared to be driven by underlying geology and high spring discharge. The results indicate that episodic acidification is affecting S. salar smolts in poorly buffered streams in New England and may help explain variation in S. salar survival and abundance among rivers and among years, with implications for the conservation and recovery"
1. ACIDIFICATION AND IONIZED ALUMINUM 's IMPACT ON SMOLTS
Evidence for episodic acidification effects on migrating Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolts, First published: 24 September 2015
Excerpt 1: Field studies were conducted to determine levels of gill aluminium as an index of acidification effects on migrating Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolts in the north‐eastern U.S.A. "Smolts emigrating from the upper Merrimack River basin where most tributaries are characterized by low pH and high inorganic aluminium had consistently elevated gill aluminium and lower gill NKA activity, which may explain the low adult return rates of S. salar stocked into the upper Merrimack catchment.
Reducing Acidification in Endangered Atlantic Salmon Habitat Baseline Data Summary April 2018 Contact: Emily Zimmermann,
Exchangeable Aluminum (Alx) "The range of Alx observed in this study is similar to data from other cool ecosystems underlain by a range of geological t For protection of aquatic life, including macroinvertebrates, the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIFAC) recommends that exchangeable aluminum should not exceed 0.015 mg/L at pH 5.0-6.0, even for short durations ("
Effects of Acid Water and Aluminum on Parr–Smolt Transformation and Seawater Tolerance in Atlantic Salmon, Salmo salar 2011
Excerpt "...sensitivity to low pH or low pH/Al exposure greatly increased when fish had developed to seawater tolerant smolts. In control and acid-exposed fish, gill carbonic anhydrase activity remained unchanged throughout the experiment whereas in Al-exposed fish, carbonic anhydrase activity decreases..."
"Excerpt 2 "In the Sheepscot, Narraguagus and Penobscot Rivers in Maine, river and year‐specific effects on gill aluminium were detected that appeared to be driven by underlying geology and high spring discharge. The results indicate that episodic acidification is affecting S. salar smolts in poorly buffered streams in New England and may help explain variation in S. salar survival and abundance among rivers and among years, with implications for the conservation and recovery"
Disruption of energy metabolism and smoltification during exposure of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) to low pH 1985
Excerpt "Juvenile Atlantic salmon were held for 76 days at pH 4.7 during the period when the final stages of smoltification normally occur. Control salmon (pH 6.5) had significant increases in weight, length and liver somatic index which were not observed in those held at low pH."
Impacts of short-term acid and aluminum exposure on Atlantic salmon(Salmo salar) physiology: A direct comparison of parr and smolts
Excerpt Episodic acidification resulting in increased acidity and inorganic aluminum (Al(i)) is known to impact anadromous salmonids and has been identified as a possible cause of Atlantic salmon population decline. Sensitive life-stages such as smolts may be particularly vulnerable to impacts of short-term (days-week) acid/Al exposurea"
2. PARASITE ATTRACTION: THE SEMIOCHEMICALS
Background Sealice are attracted by antimicrobial enzymes that salmon naturally emit when they get cuts scratches and scrapes. Unfortunately these enzymes are potent sea lice attractants.
At Issue These enzymes will be also emitted by land based farmed salmon as they bump against the structures and against each other in their tanks These are then discharged in from the tank farms into our river and bay, concentrated into a single outfall pipe for tens of thousands of salmon at once.
Question will this attract salmon lice to those waters to then prey upon outgoing salmon smolts exiting Penobscot River, that must travel past and through the effluent plume? Consider these studies:
* The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin-2 is a signal molecule, a host-associated cue for the salmon louse 2018 From Sci Rep. 2018;
Excerpts: the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin-2 (Cath-2) – ...acts as an activation cue for the marine parasitic copepod Lepeophtheirus salmonis.
"Cath-2 is a water-soluble peptide released from the skin of salmon, triggering chemosensory neural activity associated with altered swimming behaviour of copepodids exposed to the peptide,"
Excerpt "Juvenile Atlantic salmon were held for 76 days at pH 4.7 during the period when the final stages of smoltification normally occur. Control salmon (pH 6.5) had significant increases in weight, length and liver somatic index which were not observed in those held at low pH."
Impacts of short-term acid and aluminum exposure on Atlantic salmon(Salmo salar) physiology: A direct comparison of parr and smolts
Excerpt Episodic acidification resulting in increased acidity and inorganic aluminum (Al(i)) is known to impact anadromous salmonids and has been identified as a possible cause of Atlantic salmon population decline. Sensitive life-stages such as smolts may be particularly vulnerable to impacts of short-term (days-week) acid/Al exposurea"
2. PARASITE ATTRACTION: THE SEMIOCHEMICALS
Background Sealice are attracted by antimicrobial enzymes that salmon naturally emit when they get cuts scratches and scrapes. Unfortunately these enzymes are potent sea lice attractants.
At Issue These enzymes will be also emitted by land based farmed salmon as they bump against the structures and against each other in their tanks These are then discharged in from the tank farms into our river and bay, concentrated into a single outfall pipe for tens of thousands of salmon at once.
Question will this attract salmon lice to those waters to then prey upon outgoing salmon smolts exiting Penobscot River, that must travel past and through the effluent plume? Consider these studies:
* The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin-2 is a signal molecule, a host-associated cue for the salmon louse 2018 From Sci Rep. 2018;
Excerpts: the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin-2 (Cath-2) – ...acts as an activation cue for the marine parasitic copepod Lepeophtheirus salmonis.
"Cath-2 is a water-soluble peptide released from the skin of salmon, triggering chemosensory neural activity associated with altered swimming behaviour of copepodids exposed to the peptide,"
* Antimicrobial peptides from Salmo salar skin induce frontal filament development and olfactory/cuticle-related genes in the sea louse Caligus rogercresseyi. ABSTRACT
* The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin-2 is a molecular host associated cue for the salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) 2018 Source Sci Rep. 2018; 8: 13738. Published 2018 Sep 13
3. ENDOCRINE (HORMONES)
* Endocrine disruption of parr-smolt transformation and seawater tolerance of Atlantic salmon by 4-nonylphenol and 17 -estradiol
Excerpt "The results indicate that the parr-smolt transformation and salinity tolerance can be compromised by exposure to estrogenic compounds.
* Comparative responses to endocrine disrupting compounds in earlyl ife stages of Atlantic salmon , Salmo Salar Excerpt: "Our results indicate that all life stages are potentially sensitive to endocrine disruption by estrogenic compounds and that physiological responses were altered over a short window of exposure, indicating the potential for these compounds to impact fish in the wild. "
* Investigation of the impacts of common endocrine disrupting compounds on multiple early life stages of endangered atlantic salmonand shortnose sturgeon and threatened atlantic sturgeon NOAA 2015
4. HYPOXIA (Low oxygen level in water)
Effects of cyclic environmental hypoxia on physiology and feed intake of post-smolt Atlantic salmon: Initial responses and acclimation
"Results suggest that 70% O2 may represent a threshold for reduced growth and that 60% O2 represents a minimum O2 saturation considering the welfare of Atlantic salmon post-smolts subjected to cyclic hypoxia at 16 °C.
Effects of freshwater hypoxia and hypercapnia and their influences on subsequent seawater transfer in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts
Hypoxia tolerance thresholds for post-smolt Atlantic salmon: Dependency of temperature and hypoxia acclimation
Epilogue: Past successes, present misconceptions and future milestones in salmon smoltification research Björn Thrandur Björnsson a, Terence M. Bradlee
* The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin-2 is a molecular host associated cue for the salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) 2018 Source Sci Rep. 2018; 8: 13738. Published 2018 Sep 13
3. ENDOCRINE (HORMONES)
* Endocrine disruption of parr-smolt transformation and seawater tolerance of Atlantic salmon by 4-nonylphenol and 17 -estradiol
Excerpt "The results indicate that the parr-smolt transformation and salinity tolerance can be compromised by exposure to estrogenic compounds.
* Comparative responses to endocrine disrupting compounds in earlyl ife stages of Atlantic salmon , Salmo Salar Excerpt: "Our results indicate that all life stages are potentially sensitive to endocrine disruption by estrogenic compounds and that physiological responses were altered over a short window of exposure, indicating the potential for these compounds to impact fish in the wild. "
* Investigation of the impacts of common endocrine disrupting compounds on multiple early life stages of endangered atlantic salmonand shortnose sturgeon and threatened atlantic sturgeon NOAA 2015
4. HYPOXIA (Low oxygen level in water)
Effects of cyclic environmental hypoxia on physiology and feed intake of post-smolt Atlantic salmon: Initial responses and acclimation
"Results suggest that 70% O2 may represent a threshold for reduced growth and that 60% O2 represents a minimum O2 saturation considering the welfare of Atlantic salmon post-smolts subjected to cyclic hypoxia at 16 °C.
Effects of freshwater hypoxia and hypercapnia and their influences on subsequent seawater transfer in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts
Hypoxia tolerance thresholds for post-smolt Atlantic salmon: Dependency of temperature and hypoxia acclimation
Epilogue: Past successes, present misconceptions and future milestones in salmon smoltification research Björn Thrandur Björnsson a, Terence M. Bradlee
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